Learning
CLINICAL SUPERVISION
Clinical Supervision |
Definition
of Clinical Supervision
Clinical supervision was first introduced and
developed by Morris L. Cogan, Robert Goldhammer, and Richarct Weller at Harvard
University in the late fifty and early decades (Krajewski) 1982). There are two
assumptions that underlie the practice of clinical supervision. First, teaching
is a very complex activity that requires careful observation and analysis
through these observations and analyzes, the teaching supervisor will easily
develop the teacher's ability to manage the learning process. Second, the
teachers whose professionals want to be developed prefer the collegial way
rather than the outoritarian way (Sergiovanni, 1987).
Initially, the clinical supervision was
designed as one of the models or approaches in supervising the teaching of
prospective teachers who are practicing teaching. In this supervision the emphasis
is on the clinic, which is realized is a form of face-to-face relationship
between supervisors and prospective teachers who are practicing, Cogan (1973)
defines clinical supervision as follows: The rational and practice designed to
improve the teacher’supervisi classroom performance. It takes its principal
data from the events of the classroom. The analysis of these data and the
relationships between teacher and supervisor from the basis of the program,
procedures, and strategies designed to improve the student’supervisi learning
by improving the teacher’supervisi classroom behavior (Cogan 1973, halaman 54).
In accordance with this Cogan opinion,
clinical supervision is basically the guidance of teacher performance in
managing the teaching and learning process. Its implementation is practically
rationally designed. Both the design and the implementation are done on the
basis of data analysis of the activities in the classroom. Data and
relationships between teachers and supervisors are the basis of program
procedures, and strategies for teaching behavioral development of teachers in
developing students' learning. Cogan itself emphasizes the aspects of clinical
supervision on five issues, namely (1) the process of clinical supervision, (2)
the interaction between prospective teachers and students, (3) the performance
of prospective teachers in teaching, (4) the relationship of prospective
teachers with supervisors, and (5) Analysis of data based on actual events in
the class.
The purpose of clinical supervision is to
help modify teaching patterns that are not or less effective. According to
Sergiovanni (1987) there are two targets of clinical supervision, which the authors
have reflected on multi-purpose clinical supervision, which the authors have
reflected on the multi-purpose of teaching supervision, in particular teacher
professional development and work motivation. On the one hand, clinical
supervision is done to build teachers' motivation and work commitment. On the
other hand, clinical supervision is done to provide staff development for
teachers. Meanwhile, according to two other theoreticians, Acheson and Gall
(1987) the purpose of clinical supervision is to improve the teaching of the
class. This purpose is broken down into more specific objectives, as follows.
1)
Provide objective feedback to teachers, on the teaching they are carrying out.
2)
Diagnose and help solve teaching problems.
3)
Help teachers develop their skills using teaching strategies.
4)
Evaluating teachers for promotional purposes and other decisions.
5)
Help teachers develop a positive attitude toward sustainable professional
development.
Thus a glimpse of the concept of clinical
spuervisi when concluded, then the characteristics of clinical supervision as
follows; Clinical supervision takes place in the form of face-to-face
relationships between supervisors and teachers, the purpose of clinical
supervision is for teacher professional development. The clinical supervision
activities are emphasized on the aspects of the teacher's attention as well as
the observation of teaching activities in the classroom, the observation should
be done carefully and in detail, the analysis of the observation result should
be conducted jointly between the supervisor and the teacher and the
relationship between the supervisor and the teacher should be collegial rather
than authoritarian.
Clinical
Supervision Steps
Explanation of the concept of clinical
supervision and some of the results of research on its effectiveness lead us to
believe how important clinical supervision as one approach in developing
teacher teaching. It is imperative that every teaching supervisor seeks to
apply them to the teachers who are the areas of responsibility. The question
now is, what is the procedure.
According to Cogan (1973) there are eight
activities in the clinical supervision that he named with the clinical
supervision cycle. Here the term cycle contains the first two terms., The
clinical supervision procedure consists of a number of stages which are a
continuous process. Second, the result of the final stage meeting becomes input
for the first stage in the next cycle. The eight phases proposed by Cogan are
as follows: (1) the stage of establishing and strengthening the
teacher-supervisor relationship, (2) the joint planning stage of the teacher, (3)
the planning stage of the observation strategy, (4) the observation stage of
the teaching, (5) Learning, (6) meeting strategic planning stage, (7) meeting
stage, and (8) stage of exploration of next meeting plan.
According to Mosher and Purpel (1972) there
are three activities in the clinical supervision process, namely (1) planning
stage, (2) observation stage, and (3) evaluation and analysis stage. According
to Oliva (1984) there are three essential activities in the process of clinical
supervision, namely (1) contact and communication with the teacher to plan
class observation (2) class observation, and (3) follow-up class observation.
Meanwhile, according to Goldhammer, Anderson, and Krajewski (1981) there are five
activities in the process of clinical supervision, which he calls the sequence
of supervision, namely (1) meeting before observation (2) observation, (3)
analysis and strategy, (4) , And (5) analysis after the supervision meeting.
Thus, although different descriptions of the
above teriotics about the steps of the clinical supervision process, these
measures can actually be restored to the three essential cyclic phases, (1) the
initial meeting stage, (2) the observation stage of teaching, and ( 3) reverse
meeting stage. In this simple textbook the author is more likely to divide the
cycle of clinical supervision menajdi three stages as well as mentioned above.
Such descriptions are also expressed by Acheson and Gall (1987), Alexander
Mackie College of advanced Education (1981) and Mantja (1984).
1.
Initial Meeting Stage
The first stage in the process of clinical
supervision is the stage of the initial meeting (preconference). This
preliminary meeting was conducted before conducting classroom observations so
that many theorists of clinical supervision mention the term pre-observation
stage. According to Sergiovanni (1987) no stage is more important than this
initial meeting stage.
The main purpose of this initial meeting was
to develop, together with supervisors and teachers, the framework of classroom
observation to be undertaken. The end result of this initial meeting is a work
contract between the supervisor and the teacher. This goal can be achieved if
in this initial meeting created cooperation, human relations and good
communication between supervisors with teachers. Furthermore, the quality of
good relationships between supervisors and teachers has a significant influence
on the success of the next stage in the process of clinical supervision.
Therefore, many theorists suggest that this initial meeting, carried out in a
relaxed and open manner. It is imperative that teachers' trust in supervisors
be created as these beliefs will affect the effectiveness of this initial
meeting. This belief is related to the teacher's belief that the supervisor is
paying attention to the teacher's interest or concern.
This preliminary meeting does not take long.
In this initial meeting the supervisor may spend 20 to 30 minutes, unless the
teacher has special problems that require lengthy discussions. This meeting
should be held in a neutral room, such as a cafeteria, or it may be in the
classroom. Meetings in the principal's or supervisor's room are likely to make
the teacher less free. Technically, there are eight activities to be undertaken
in this initial meeting, namely (1) creating an intimate and open atmosphere,
(2) identifying aspects that teachers will develop in teaching. (3) to help
teachers improve their own objectives (6) set class observation time, (7)
select class observation instruments, and ( 8) clarify the context of teaching
by looking at the data to be recorded.
Goldhammer, Anderson, and Krajewski (1981)
describe an agenda to be produced at the end of the initial meeting. The agenda
is:
A.
Establish a contract or agreement between supervisor and teacher about what
will be observed.
1)
General and special instructional objectives of teaching
2)
The relationship of teaching objectives with the overall teaching program being
implemented.
3)
Activities to be observed
4)
Possible formal changes to activities, systems, and other elements based on
interactive agreement between supervisor and teacher.
5)
Specific description of the items or problems that the teacher wants to return.
B.
Establishing mechanisms or observation rules include:
1)
Time (schedule) of observation
2)
Duration of observation
3)
Place of observation
C.
Establish specific plans to carry out observations include:
1)
Where the supervisor will sit during observation
2)
Will the supervisor explain to the students the purpose of his observation if
so, when before or after the lesson.
3)
Will the supervisor look for a specific action.
4)
Will the supervisor interact with the students
5)
Should there be material or special preparation
6)
How the supervisor will end the observation
2.
Learning Observation Stage
The second stage in the process of clinical
supervision is the systematic and objective teaching observation stage. The
attention of this observation is to the teacher in acting and the class
activities as a result of the teacher's actions. The time and place of teaching
observation is in accordance with the mutual agreement between the supervisor
and the teacher during the initial meeting.
Observation of teaching, may be very complex
and difficult, and not infrequently there are supervisors who have difficulty.
Thus the supervisor is required to use various skills. According to Daresh
(1989) there are two aspects that must be decided and executed by the
supervisor before and after carrying out teaching observations, ie determining
the aspects to be observed teaching and how to observe the request. The aspects
to be observed should be in accordance with the results of discussions between
supervisors and Teachers at the time of the initial meeting. Aliva (1984)
asserted as follows: If we follow through the cycle of clinical supervisors and
supervisors, the supervisor will observe. The supervisor concentrates on the
presence or absence of the specific behaviors (Oliva: 1984, page 502).
As for how to observe also need to get
attention. Good intentions of supervision will be meaningless if observational
efforts are not able to obtain data that should be obtained. The main purpose
of data collection is to obtain information that will be used to exchange ideas
with teachers after observation of activities that have been done in the
classroom. Herein lies the importance of the techniques and instruments of
observation that can be used to observe teachers managing the teaching and
learning process.
With regard to these techniques and
instruments, many researchers have developed a variety of techniques that can
be used in observing teaching. Acheson and Gall (1987) review some techniques
and advise us to use them in the process of clinical supervision some of these
techniques are as follows:
1)
Selective verbatim. Here the supervisor makes a kind of written record, which
can be made with a verbatim transcript. Of course not all verbal events should
be recorded and in accordance with the mutual agreement between the supervisor
and the teacher at the initial meeting, only certain events should be recorded
selectively. This transcript can be written directly based on observations and
can also copy from what is recorded first through a tape recorder.
2)
Observational record in the form of a seating chart. Here, supervisors document
the behaviors of pupils as they interact with a teacher during the teaching.
The entire complexity of behavior and interaction is described in illustration.
Through the use of a seating chart, supervisors can graphically document the
interaction of teachers with students with pupils. So it is easy to know
whether the teacher only interacts with all students or only with some
students, whether all students or only part of the students are involved in
teaching and learning process.
3)
Wide-lens techniques. Here the supervisor makes a complete record of the events
in the class and the story at length. This technique can also be called
anecdotal record.
4)
Checkliss and timeline coding. Here the supervisor observes and collects the
data on teaching and learning behavior. This learning behavior has previously
been classified or categorized. The best example of this procedure in clinical
supervision observation is the scale of Flanders' interaction analysis
(Flanders, 1970). In this analysis, classroom activity is classified into three
broad categories, namely teacher talks, student talks and silence.
Another checklist that can be used to direct
teaching observation is the so-called timeline coding technique developed over
the past 20 years, which is designed to learn teaching strategies. Here,
supervisors record the behavior of teachers and students in certain
predetermined times during certain times set previously provided during the
learning process. This technique can provide data to teachers that they feel
should be observed and developed. This instrument can direct the supervisor in
his observations and provide specific feedback in the desired time
classification.
Thus some of the techniques reviewed by
Acheson and Gall have been suggested, can be used to direct and facilitate the
observation stage in the clinical supervision process. An effective supervisor
should be aware of some of these techniques and try to have one or more
techniques according to the teacher's attention to be observed. But
unfortunately, according to Daresh (1989), by looking over time, the opposite
happened. And many things, the supervisor only learns one preferred observation
technique, such as the Flanders Interaction analysis technique, and uses it
every technique has advantages and disadvantages. However, the excess of any
technique will quickly disappear if the supervisor is more insightful of just
one technique that is understood and liked by not following the teacher's attention.
3.
Contouring Meeting Stage
The third stage in the process of clinical
supervision is the reverse meeting stage. Return meetings are held immediately
after carrying out teaching observations, with the first analysis of the
results of observation. The main purpose of this reversal meeting is to follow
up what the supervisor sees as an onserver to the learning process. The talks
in this reverse meeting are emphasized on identifying and analyzing the
similarities and differences between the planned teacher and student behavior
and the actual behavior of teachers and students, as well as making decisions
about what and how that should be done in relation to the differences.
This feedback is an important stage for
developing teacher behavior by providing specific feedback. This feedback
should be descriptive, specific, concrete, motivational, actual, and accurate
so that it is truly beneficial to the teacher (Sergiovanni, 1987). There are at
least five benefits of return meetings for teachers, as Goldhammer, Anderson,
and Krajewski (1981) have noted, that is, (1) teachers can be empowered and
satisfied, so they can be motivated in their work, (2) issues in teaching Can
be defined with appropriate supervisors and teachers, (3) supervisors where
possible and necessary, may attempt to directly intervene teachers to provide
didactic and guidance assistance; (4) teachers may be trained with this
technique to supervise themselves; ) Foam teachers were given additional
knowledge to improve the level of professional self-analysis in the future.
Of course, before holding this feedback
meeting supervisor first analyze the observation and plan the material to be
discussed with the teacher. Similarly, teachers are expected to assess
themselves. After that this reverse meeting. In this reverse meeting is very
necessary the openness between supervisor and teacher. Preferably, the
supervisor first instills confidence in the teacher that this counter-meeting
is not to blame the teacher but to provide feedback. Because many theorists who
advocate first what the supervisor should do in each reverse meeting is to
provide reinforcement to the teacher. Only after continuing with a joint
analysis of every aspect of teaching that concerns clinical supervision. Here
are some important steps to be taken during reverse meetings.
1)
Inquire about teachers' feelings in general or their impression of the
teaching, then the supervisor attempts to provide reinforcement.
2)
Analyze the attainment of teaching objectives. Here the supervisor with the
teacher identifies the difference between the planned teaching objectives and
the accomplished teaching objectives.
3)
Analyze the target skills and teacher's primary concern. Here (the supervisor
with the teacher identifies the target skills and the major concerns that have
been achieved and which have not been achieved.It may be that at this time the
supervisor shows the observation record, so that the teacher knows what has
been done and achieved, and which is not in accordance with the target skill and
attention The main teacher as agreed at the initial meeting stage.If in the
observation activities supervisors record the process of teaching and learning
by electronic devices, for example by using the filming tool, then the
recording should be shown to the teacher so he freely see and interpret it
yourself.
4)
The Supervisor asks his / her feelings after the target skill targets and the
main concern.
5)
Summing up the results of what he / she has gained during the clinical
supervision process. Here supervision provides an opportunity for teachers to
conclude the target skills and the main concerns that have been achieved during
the clinical supervision process.
6)
Encourage the teacher to plan the following exercises while setting out the
next plan.
These are three main points in the process of
clinical supervision. These three stages are actually cyclical, ie the initial
meeting stage, the teaching observation stage, and the reverse meeting stage.
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