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| Research and Development (R & D) |
A. Definition
Research Development Research and Development (R & D)
Research
Development and Research and Development (R & D) is currently one of the
most widely used research types. Research development is one type of research
that can be a link or breaker gap between basic research with applied research.
Understanding Research Development or Research and Development (R & D) is
often defined as a process or steps to develop a new product or product that
already exist. What this means is not necessarily hardware (books, modules,
learning aids in the classroom and laboratory), nor can software (software)
such as programs for processing data, classroom learning, libraries or
laboratories, or models Education, training, guidance, evaluation, management,
etc.
Research
and Development (R & D) According to Gay (1990) Research Development is a
business or activity to develop an effective product for school use, and not to
test the theory. While Borg and Gall (1983: 772) defines research development
as follows: Educational Research and development (R & D) is a process used
to develop and validate educational products. The steps of this process are
usually referred to as the R & D cycle, which consists of studying research
findings pertinent to the product to be developed, developing the products
based on these findings, field testing it in the setting where it will be used
eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the
filed-testing stage. In more rigorous programs of R&D, this cycle is
repeated until the field-test data indicate that the product meets its
behaviorally defined objectives.
While
Borg and Gall (1983: 772) define development research as a process used to
develop and validate educational products. The steps of this process are
usually referred to as the R & D cycle, which consists of studying the
research findings related to the product to be developed, developing the product
based on these findings, the testing field in the setting where it will be used
eventually, and revising it to correct deficiencies Which was found in the
stage of filing the test. In a more rigorous program of R & D, this cycle
is repeated until field-test data indicates that the product meets defined
behavioral objectives.
Research
development in education (R & D) is a process used to develop and validate
educational products. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the
R & D cycle, which consists of studying the research findings related to
the product to be developed, developing the product based on these findings,
the testing field in the setting where it will be used eventually, and revising
it to correct deficiencies Which was found in the stage of filing the test. In
a more rigorous program of R & D, this cycle is repeated until field-test
data indicates that the product meets defined behavioral objectives.
Seals
and Richey (1994) define development research as a systematic review of the
design, development and evaluation of programs, processes and learning products
that must meet the criteria of validity, practicality and effectiveness. While
Plomp (1999) adds the "can indicate added value" criterion in
addition to these three criteria.
While
Van den Akker and Plomp (1993) describe development research based on two
objectives namely as the development of product prototype and as formulation of
methodological suggestions for designing and evaluation of the product
prototype
While
Richey and Nelson (1996) distinguish research on the development of two types,
the first research focused on completion and evaluation of a particular product
or program with the aim to get a picture of the development process as well as
studying conditions that support for the implementation of the program. Second,
research focuses on the assessment of previous development programs. The
purpose of this second type is to obtain an overview of effective designing and
evaluation procedures.
Based
on the above opinions, it can be concluded that development research is a
process used to develop and validate the products used in education. The
resulting products include: training materials for teachers, learning
materials, media, problems, and management systems in learning.
B. Research
Development Objectives
The
purpose of the development study usually contains two information, namely (1)
the problem to be solved and (2) the specification of the learning, model,
problem, or device to be generated to solve the problem. As long as these two
aspects are contained in a development research problem formulation, then the
formulation of the problem is correct. It can be argued that the purpose of
Development Research is to inform the decision-making process as long as the
development of a product grows and the developer's ability to create things of
this kind in the future.
According
to Akker (1999) the purpose of special development research in education is
differentiated based on the development of curriculum, technology and media,
lesson and instruction, and didactic teacher education. Here's an explanation:
1.
In the curriculum section
The
goal is to inform the decision-making process throughout the development of a
product / program to improve a program / product to develop and developer's
ability to create things of this kind in the future.
2.
In the technology and media
The
goal is to improve the instructional design, development, and evaluation
process based on other specific problem-solving situations or generalized
inspection procedures.
3.
In the lesson and instruction section
The
objectives are for development in the design of the learning environment, the
formulation of the curriculum, and the assessment of the success of observation
and learning, and simultaneously seeking to contribute to a fundamental
scientific understanding.
4.
In the teacher education and didactic sections
The
aim is to contribute professional teachers' learning and / or improve changes
in a specific educational setting. In the didactic section, the goal is to make
development research as an interactive, circular process of research and
development where the theoretical ideas of the designer provide product
development that is tested in a specified classroom, pushing rapidly toward
theoretical and empirical by finding the product, the learning process From
developers and instructional theories.
C. Characteristics
and Motives Research Development
According
to Wayan (2009) there are 4 characteristics of research development, among
others:
1.
The
problem to be solved is a real problem related to innovative efforts or the
application of technology in learning as a professional responsibility and
commitment to the acquisition of quality learning.
2.
Development
of models, approaches and methods of learning and learning media that support
the effectiveness of student achievement competence.
3.
Product
development process, validation done through expert test, and field trial in a
limited need to be done so that the resulting product is useful for improving
the quality of learning. The process of development, validation, and field
trials should be clearly described, so it can be accounted for academically.
4.
The
process of developing models, approaches, modules, methods, and instructional
media needs to be well documented and systematically reported in accordance
with research rules that reflect originality.
While
the research development motif as dikkerkan Akker (1999), among others:
1.
The
basic motive is that research is mostly done in a traditional way, such as
experiments, surveys, correlation analyzes focused on descriptive analysis that
do not provide useful results for design and development in education.
2.
A
very complex state of policy change in the world of education, so a more
evolutionary (interactive and cyclical) research approach is needed.
3.
Educational
research in general mostly leads to a hesitant reputation due to the absence of
proof of relevance.
D. Steps and Research
Development Methods
In
general, the steps of Research and Development include:
1)
Potentials
and Problems
2)
Gathering
Information
3)
Product
Design
4)
Design
Validation
5)
Design
Repair
6)
Product
Trial
7)
Product
Revisions
8)
Usage
Trial
9)
Advanced
Product Revisions
10)
Mass
Product Making
The
main steps of the R & D cycle are presented by Borg and Hall (1989: 775) as
follows a) Research and Data Collection, b) Planning, c) Initial Product
Development, d) Initial product trial / Limited Trial , E) Preliminary Product
Enhancement, f) Larger Field Trial, g) Product Completion of Wider Field Test
Results, h) Final Product Test, i) Revision or Final Product Completion, j)
Dissemination and Implementation
a)
Research and Data Collection
At this stage, there
are at least 2 things to do namely literature studies and field studies. In the
literature study, it is used to find concepts or theoretical foundations that
reinforce a product. Through literature study is also studied the scope of a
product, the usage of the use, supporting conditions, etc .. Through the
literature study is also known the most appropriate steps to develop the
product. The study of literature will also give an overview of the results of
previous research that can be as a comparison material to develop a particular
product. In addition to literature studies, it is also necessary to conduct
field studies or in other words referred to as measurement of needs and
research on a small scale (Sukmadinata: 2005). In developing a product, should
be based on the needs assessment (need assessment).
b)
Planning
Based on preliminary
studies that have been done, then made the planning / design of products which
include, among others: a) the purpose of the use of products; B) who is the
user of the product; C) a description of the components of the product and its
use.
c)
Initial Product Development
The initial product
development is a rough draft of the product to be created. Nevertheless, the
draft of the product should be as complete and perfect as possible. The initial
draft or product developed by the researcher works together or solicits the
help of experts and or practitioners who are suitably skilled in their area of
expertise (desk try out or desk evaluation). At this stage it is often called
an expert validation stage. Experimental trials or evaluations are approximate
or judgmental, based on analysis and logical considerations from researchers
and experts. Field trials will be micro-feasible, case-by-case for general or
generalized conclusions.
d)
Initial product trial / Limited Trial
After the test on the
table, then field trials are conducted at school or in the laboratory.
According to Borg and Hall (1989), initial product field trials are recommended
for 1 to 3 schools with a total of 10 to 30 people. During the implementation of
field trials, researchers conducted intensive observations and recorded
important things done by the respondents who will be used as material for the
refinement of the initial product.
e)
Completion of Initial Products
Completion of the
initial product will be done after a limited field trial. At this stage of the
initial product improvement, more is done with qualitative approach. Evaluation
is done more on the evaluation of the process, so that improvements made are
internal improvements.
f)
More extensive field trials
Although it has been
obtained a more perfect product, but trials and product improvements still need
to be done once again. This is done so that the developed product meets certain
standards. Therefore the population target must be adjusted. Trials and
improvements in the early product stages are still focused on the development
and refinement of product materials, not paying attention to eligibility in the
context of the population. The feasibility of the population is carried out in
an improved trial and refinement of the product. At this stage, trials and
improvements are performed in larger sample quantities. Borg and Gall (1989),
suggest that in this stage school samples are used from 5 to 15 schools, with
sample subjects between 30 to 100 people (This is relative, depending on
number-of-category and population characteristics). Improved product trial
steps are exactly the same as the initial product test, only the sample numbers
are different.
g)
Greater Product Test Results Results
Field
Completion of
products from the results of a wider field test will further strengthen the
product that we develop, because at the stage of field trials previously
implemented with the control group. The design used is pretest and posttest. In
addition to internal improvements. Completion of this product is based on the
evaluation of the results so that the approach used is a quantitative approach.
h)
Trial Product Testing
Testing of final
product, intended to test whether an educational product is feasible and has
excellence in practice level. In this test the goal is no longer refining the
product, because the product is assumed to be perfect. The final product test
can be performed at the same school as at the second or different test phase
with the same number of samples. In the final product testing, a control group
should be used. The test is carried out in the form of experimental design. The
design model used is "The randomized pretest-posttest control group
design" or at least "the matching only pretests-posttest control
group design". The first design is a pure experimental design, since both
experimental groups are randomized or equated. The second design includes a
quasi experiment, because both experimental groups are only paired.
i)
Revision or Enhancement of the End Items
Completion of the
final product is deemed necessary for more accurate product being developed. At
this stage has been obtained a product that the level of effectiveness can be
accounted for. The final product refinement results have a reliable
"generalization" value.
j)
Dissemination and Implementation
Having produced a
final product that has been tested for its efficacy, the next step is
dissemination, implementation, and institutionalization. The dissemination of a
product, which is developed, will require considerable and long socialization.
Usually the dissimination and implementation prs will be dealing with various
policy issues, legality, funding, etc.
Research
Development in the field of education usually begins with the identification of
learning problems encountered in the classroom by teachers who will conduct
research. The definition of learning problems. In development research is a
problem related to instructional tools, such as syllabus, teaching materials,
student worksheets, learning media, tests to measure learning outcomes, etc.
Learning tools are considered to be a problem because they do not exist, or
exist but do not meet the learning needs, or are there but need to be fixed, Of
course not all learning device problems will be solved at once, a single
learning device problem is chosen as a priority to be solved first.
The
next stage is to study theories about the development of learning tools
relevant to that will be developed. After mastering the theory related to the
development of learning devices, researchers then worked on developing a draft
learning tool based on relevant theories that have been studied. Once
completed, the draft must be repeatedly reviewed by the researcher himself or
assisted by peer review.
Once
believed to be good as expected, the draft is requested for input to the
relevant experts (expert validation). Input from experts serves as a basis for
improvements to the draft. After the draft is revised based on input from
experts, the next step is to test the draft. The trial is tailored to the use
of the device. When developed is a teaching material, then the test is used to
teach to students who will need the device. Trials can be done on some sections
only to a small group of students, or one class. If the test is a syllabus,
then the test is for the teacher who will use the syllabus. The test activity
is to ask the teacher to use syllabus to prepare the Learning Program Plan
(RPP).
The
purpose of the trial is to see if the developed learning device is acceptable
or not. From the trial results, some parts may require revisions. The last
activity is the revision of the draft into the final draft of the learning
device.
According
to Akker (1999), there are 4 stages in the development research that is usually
done in the world of education are:
1.
Preliminary inverstigation.
Systematic and
intensive preliminary investigations of the problem include:
·
Review
of literature,
·
Consulting
experts,
·
Analysis
of sample availability for related purposes, and
·
A
case study of a common practice for detailing needs.
2.
Theoretical embedding
A more systematic
effort is made to apply the basic knowledge in expressing the theoretical
rationale for the choice of design.
3.
Empirical testing
Clear empirical
evidence indicates the practicality and effectiveness of the intervention.
4.
Process and results of documentation, analysis and reflection (documentation,
analysis, and reflection on process and outcome).
Implementation and
results to contribute to the specification and extension of the research design
and development methodology.
The
method of research development is not much different from other research
approaches. However, development research focuses on two stages: preliminary
stage and formative evaluation stage (Tessmer, 1993) which includes
self-evaluation, prototyping (expert reviews and one-to-one, and small group),
as well as field tests. The design flow of formative evaluation as follows:
1.
Preliminary Stage
At this stage,
researchers will determine the place and subject of research such as by
contacting the principal and teachers of school subjects who will be the
location of research. Furthermore, researchers will conduct other preparations,
such as arranging research schedules and cooperative procedures with the classroom
teachers used as research sites.
2.
Formative Evaluation Phase
1) Self Evaluation
·
Analysis
This stage is the
first step of development research. Researchers in this case will conduct
student analysis, curriculum analysis, and analysis of the device or material
to be developed.
·
Design
At this stage the
researcher will design the device to be developed which includes the design of
the grille, the purpose, and the method to be developed. Then the results of
the designs that have been obtained can validate existing validation techniques
such as with data triangulation techniques that design is validated by experts
(expert) and peers. The result of this designation is called the first
prototype.
2)
Prototyping
The result of
designing the first prototype developed on the basis of self evaluation is
given to expert (expert review) and student (one-to-one) in parallel. From the
results of both used as material revision. The revision result on the first
prototype is called the second prototype.
·
Expert
Review
At the expert review
stage, products that have been designed are reviewed, evaluated and evaluated
by experts. The experts reviewed the content, constructs, and language of each
prototype. Expert advice is used to revise the developed device. At this stage,
the responses and suggestions from the validators of the design that have been
made are written on the validation sheet as a revised material and state
whether or not this design is valid.
·
One-to-one
At the one-to-one
stage, researchers piloted designs that have been developed to students /
teachers who become testers. The results of this implementation are used to
revise the designs that have been made.
·
Small
group
The revised results
of the expert and the difficulties experienced during the first prototype test
were used as the basis for revising the prototype and named the second
prototype and then the results were tested on a small group. The result of this
implementation is used for revision before it is tested in the field test
stage. The result of the revision is based on the student's suggestion /
comment on the small group and the result of this item analysis is called the
third prototype.
3)
Field Test
Suggestions and test
results on the second prototype serve as a basis for revising the second
prototype design. The result of the revision is tested to the research subject
in this case as a field test or field test.
Products that have
been tested on field tests should be products that meet the quality criteria.
Akker (1999) suggests that the three quality criteria are: validity,
practicality, and effectiveness (have potential effects).
E. Advantages and
Disadvantages of Development Research
Here
are the advantages of Research Development or Research and Development are as
follows:
a.
Research
Development or Research and Development is able to produce a product / model
that has a high validation value, because the product is generated through a
series of field trials and validated by experts.
b.
Research
Development or Research and Development will always encourage the process of
product innovation / model that is relentless / has a pretty good value of
suistanibility so it is expected to be found products / models that are always
actual in accordance with the present demand
c.
Research
Development or Research and Development is a liaison between research that is
theoretical with research that is practical
d.
Research
Method Development or Research and Development is a fairly comprehensive
method, ranging from descriptive, evaluative, and experimental methods.
The
weakness of Research Development or Research and Development are as follows:
a.
In
principle Development or Research and Development takes a relatively long time;
Because the procedure to be followed is relatively complex.
b.
Development
and Research and Development can be regarded as "here and now"
research, R & D research can not be fully generalized, because basically
research R & D modeling on sample not on population.
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