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| CONSTRUCTTIVISTIC LEARNING MODELS |
1. Introduction
The
advancement of information and communications technology that developed so
rapidly in the era of globalization, brought a very radical change. The change
has had an impact on every aspect of life, including the education and learning
system. The impact of this extraordinary change is the formation of a 'global
cumon', even worse because the global community is arriving much faster than
calculated: the information revolution has brought a truly hyper-reality new
world.
As
a result of such rapid changes, humans can no longer depend only on a constant
set of values, beliefs and patterns of social activity. Human beings are
continually forced to reassess positions in relation to these factors in order
to build a possible or perhaps possible social-personal construction. If people
are able to survive the challenges of change in this world of knowledge,
technology, communication and socio-cultural construction, then we must develop
new processes to deal with these new problems. We can no longer depend on past
answers because the answers are so fast as they do not work with the changes.
Knowledge, methods, and skills are becoming obsolete almost simultaneously with
the time these things deliver results. Degeng (1998) states that we have entered
the era of chaos. The era came so suddenly and nobody could resist it. We must
enter in it and be tortured. The era of chaos can not be answered with the
paradigm of order, certainty, and order. The era of chaos has to be answered
with a clutter paradigm. The era of chaos is based on constructivist theory and
concept; A theory of learning that is now widely embraced in the education
community in the US. The most important element in constructivism is freedom
and diversity. Freedom in question is the freedom to make choices in accordance
with pa capable and willing to be done by the learners. The diversity in
question is that the learner realizes that the individual is different from
other people / groups, and the other person / group is different from the individual.
This
alternative approach to learning for Indonesia is putting reform as the
discourse of nation and state life, not only in education, but also in all
fields. During this time, our discourse is behavioristic oriented towards
uniformity that ultimately forms Indonesian people who are very difficult to
appreciate the differences. Different behavior is more viewed as a mistake to
be punished. Indonesian human behavior has been infected with viruses of
similarity, virus regularity, and further this virus that control our behavior
in nation and state.
Longworth
(1999) summarizes this phenomenon by stating: 'We need to change our focus and
what needs to be learned into how to learn. The change that must occur is a
change from content to process. Learning how to learn to learn something
becomes more important than the facts and learned concepts themselves'.
Education,
therefore, should prepare individuals to be ready to live in a world where
problems arise much faster than the answer to the problem, where the
uncertainty and ambiguity of change can be faced openly, where individuals have
the skills Which it needs to continually adjust their relationship to an
ever-changing world, and where each and every one of us becomes the giver of
meaning for our existence. Beare & Slaughter (1993) suggests, 'This not
only means new techniques in education, but also a new goal. The purpose of
education must be to develop a society in which people can live more
comfortably with change than with certainty. In the world to come, the ability
to deal with new things is precisely more important than the ability to know
and repeat old things.
The
need for a new orientation in this education feels so strong and real in many
fields of study, both in the field of exact sciences and the social sciences.
Educators, education practitioners and all of us, inevitably have to respond to
the changes that occur by changing the educational paradigm. To answer and
overcome the changes that occur continuously, the alternative that can be used
is constructivist paradigmna
2.
The Nature of Behavioristic Learning and Constructivistic / Constructivist Learning
a.
The Nature of Behavioristic Learning
Thornike,
one of Behavioristic Behaviorists, states that learning is an occurrence of
associations between the events of the stimulus (S) and the response given to
the stimulus. Thorndike's statement is based on his experimental results in a
laboratory that uses several types of animals such as cats, dogs, monkeys, and
chickens. According to him, from different situations given by an animal will
give a number of responses, and actions that can be formed depend on the
strength of the connection or the bonds between the situation and a particular
response. Then he concludes that all human behavior both mind and action can be
analyzed in parts of two simple structures, namely stimulus and response. Thus,
according to this view the basis of learning is the formation of an association
between the stimulus and the response. Therefore, according to Hudojo (1990:
14) Thondike theory is called association theory.
Furthermore,
Thorndike (in Orton 1991: 39-40; Resnick, 1981: 13) suggests that the
association between stimulus and response follows the following laws: (1) The
law of exercise, that is, when the association between the stimulus And serting
response occurs, then the association will form stronger. This interpretation
of the law is the more often a knowledge - which has been formed by the
association between stimulus and response - trained (used), then the association
will be stronger; (2) Law of effect, ie if the association formed between
stimulus and response is followed by a satisfaction then the association will
increase. This means (ideally), if a response given by a person to a stimulus
is true and he knows it, then satisfaction will be achieved and the association
will be strengthened.
Adherents
of other behavioral psychology that is Skinner, argue almost similar to the
laws resulting from Thorndike. He argues that the most important element in
learning is reinforcement. The point is that knowledge is generated through
stimulus bonds - the response gets stronger when reinforced. Skinner divides
this gain into two, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement as a stimulus, if its representation accompanies a behavior that
tends to increase the occurrence of repetition of that behavior. While negative
reinforcement is a stimulus that is eliminated / abolished because it tends to
strengthen behavior (Bell, 1981: 151).
b.
The nature of learning Constructivism
The
formation of knowledge according to constructivism views the active subject of
creating cognitive structures in their interactions with the environment. With
the help of this cognitive structure, the subject compiles a sense of reality.
Cognitive interaction will occur as far as reality is structured through the
cognitive structure created by the subject itself. The cognitive structure must
always be altered and adapted according to the demands of the environment and
the changing organism. The process of self-adjustment occurs continuously
through the reconstruction process.
The
most important thing in constructivism theory is that in the learning process,
the learners must get the emphasis. They should actively develop their
knowledge, not learners or others. Those who must be responsible for the
learning outcomes. Active emphasis on student learning needs to be developed.
Students 'creativity and activity will help them to stand alone in the
students' cognitive life.
Learn
more directed to experimental learning is a humanitarian adaptation based on
concrete experience in the laboratory, discussion with classmates, who then
contemplated and made ideas and the development of new concepts. Therefore the
accentuation of educating and teaching is not focused on the educator but on
the learners.
Some
of the things that concern constructivist learning are: (1) prioritizing real
learning in the relevant context, (2) giving priority to the process, (3)
inculcating learning in the context of social experience, (4) learning is done
in order to construct experience (Pranata , Http://puslit.petra.ac.id/journals/interior/.).
The
nature of constructivist learning by Brooks & Brooks in Degeng says that
knowledge is non-objective, temporary, constantly changing, and uncertain.
Learning is seen as the compilation of knowledge from concrete experiences,
collaborative activities, and reflections and interpretations. Teaching means
organizing the environment so that learners are motivated in exploring meaning
and appreciating uncertainty. On this basis then the learner will have a
different understanding of the knowledge stuck in his experience, and the
perspective used in interpreting it.
3.
Aspects of Constructivistic / Constructivist Learning
Fornot
poses the following constructivist aspects: adaptation, concept of envieronmet,
and the construction of meaning. From the three aspects mentioned by J. Piaget
means that the adaptation to the environment is done through two processes,
namely assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation
is a cognitive process whereby a person integrates perceptions, concepts or new
experiences into the scheme or pattern already in his mind. Assimilation is
seen as a cognitive process that locates and classifies new events or stimuli
in existing schemes. This assimilation process continues. Assimilation will not
cause change / turn of the schemata but the development of the schemata.
Assimilation is one of the individual processes in adapting and organizing
themselves to the new environment the person's understanding develops.
Accommodations,
in the face of new stimuli or experiences one can not assimilate new
experiences with the schemata they already have. The new experience is biased
so completely unsuited to the existing scheme. Under such circumstances people
will make accommodation. Accommodations occur to form new schemes that match
new stimuli or modify existing schemes to fit the stimulus. For Piaget
adaptation is an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation. When in
the process of assimilation a person can not make an adaptation to his
environment then there is disequilibrium (disequilibrium). As a result of the
imbalance, the existing accommodation and cognitive structure will be experienced
or the emergence of new structures. This intellectual growth is an ongoing
process of disequilibrium and equilibrium. But if there is equilibrium then the
individual will be at a higher level than before.
This
level of knowledge or tiered knowledge by Vygotskian is called scaffolding.
Scaffolding, means giving an individual a large amount of help during the early
stages of learning and then reducing the aid and giving the child an
opportunity to take on a greater responsibility as soon as he or she is able to
do it on their own. The learner's assistance can be guidance, warning,
encouragement, outlining problems into other forms that enable students to be
independent. Vygotsky proposed three categories of student achievement in his
attempt to solve problems, namely (1) students achieve success well, (2)
students achieve success with help, (3) students fail success. Scaffolding,
means a learner's effort to guide students in their efforts to achieve success.
Teacher encouragement is needed so that student achievement to a higher level
becomes optimum.
Vygotskian
constructivism considers that knowledge is collaboratively constructed between
individuals and the circumstances can be adapted by each individual. The
process in cognition is directed through intellectual adaptation in the social
cultural context. The adjustment process is equivalent to the intra-individual
knowledge construction through the internal self-regulation process. In this
connection, Vygotskian constructivists place more emphasis on the application
of inter-individual exchange of ideas.
Two
important principles derived from Vygotsky's theory are: (1), about the
function and importance of language in social communication which begins the
process of signaling to exchange of information and knowledge, (2) the zone of
proximal development. Learners as mediators have a role encouraging and
bridging students in their efforts to build knowledge, understanding and
competence.
An
important contribution to Vygotsky's theory is the emphasis on the nature of
sociocultural learning. Vygotsky's core theory is to emphasize the interaction
between internal and external aspects of learning and its emphasis on the
social environment of learning. According to Vygotsky's theory, human cognitive
function comes from the social interaction of each individual in a cultural
context. Vygotsky also believes that learning occurs when students work on
uncharted tasks but these tasks are within reach of their abilities or those
tasks are within their zone of proximal development. Zone of proximal
development is an inter-real level of development that is defined as the
ability to solve problems independently and the level of potential development
that is defined as problem solving skills under the guidance of more capable
adults or peers. Such tiered knowledge as in the following scheme.
1)
Effective habits of mind
2)
Cooperative colaborative
3)
Effective communication
4)
Information processing
5)
Complex thinking
Knowledge
and understanding are constructed when one is socially engaged in dialogue and
active in experiments and experiences. The formation of meaning is
interpersonal dialogue. In this case learners not only need access to physical
experience but also interaction with the experience possessed by other
individuals. Cooperative learning (cooperative learning) is emerging when
students work together to achieve the desired learning objectives by students.
Classroom management according to cooperative learning aims to help students to
develop intentions and tips to work together and interact with other students.
There are three important things to consider in classroom management: grouping,
co-operative semanggar and class arrangement. (Pranata, http://puslit.petra.ac.id/journals/interior/.
Briefly
the theory of Peaget and Vygotsky can be put forward in the following table.
Table
Piagetian and Vygotskyan Constructivism
Piagetian
Constructivism
|
Vygotsky
Constructivism
|
|
Concept
|
constructivism
focus on individual cognitive development through co-constructed learning
environments with national, decontextualized thinking as the goal of
development
|
Vygotsky,
in order to understand human development, a multilevel analysis using all four
levels of history must be employed: sosiocultural constructivism,
|
Subject
of Study
|
Focus
on the development of autonomous cognitive forms within the individual,
culminating in rational thought that is decentered from the individual.
|
argued
that individual development cannot be understood without reference to the
interpersonal and institutional surround which situates the child
|
Develop-ment
of cognitive forms
|
the
structure of the mind is the source of our understanding of the world.
|
the
construction of knowledge occurs through interaction in the social world.
Thus for Vygotsky the development of cognitive forms occurs by means of the
dialectical relationship between the individual and the social context
|
4.
Constructivist Learning Design
Based
on the theory of J. Peaget and Vygotsky which has been stated above, the
learning can be designed / designed constructivist learning model in the
classroom as follows:
First,
identify prior knowledge and misconceptions. Initial identification of the
intuitive idea they have in their environment is nurtured to find out the
possibilities of misconceptions that encounter students' cognitive structures.
This identification is done by the initial test, interview
Second,
the preparation of learning programs. The learning program is described in the
form of a lesson unit.
Third
orientation and elicitation, a conducive and exciting learning situation is
necessary to be created in the early stages of learning to arouse their
interest in the topic to be discussed. Students are guided so that they will
express as many intuitive ideas as possible about the physical phenomena they
observe in their daily environment. The disclosure of ideas can be through
discussion, writing, illustration of images and so on. The ideas are then
considered together. The learning atmosphere is relaxed and not scary so that
students are not afraid of being ridiculed and laughed at if their ideas are
wrong. Teachers must refrain from judging them. The truth of the student's
ideas will be answered and revealed by itself through reasoning in the stage of
cognitive conflict.
Fourth,
reflection. At this stage, the various misconceptions that arise at the stage
of orientation and elicitation are defined by misconceptions that have been
nurtured at an early stage. These misconceptions are classified by their error
rate and consistency to facilitate restructuring.
Fifth,
the restructuring of ideas, (a) challenges, students are given questions about
the symptoms that can then be exhibited or investigated in the lab. They are
asked to predict the results of the experiment and provide a reason to support
that prediction. (B) cognitive conflicts and class discussions. Students will
see for themselves whether their predictions are right or wrong. They are
encouraged to test their beliefs by experimenting. If their forecast misses,
they will experience cognitive conflict and begin to be dissatisfied with their
ideas. Then they are encouraged to think of the simplest explanation that can
explain as much as possible the symptoms they have seen. Attempt to seek this
explanation is done by confrontation process through discussion with friend or
teacher on its capacity as facilitator and mediator. (C) rebuilding the
conceptual framework. Students are led to discover for themselves that the new
concepts have internal consistency. Show that the new scientific concept has
the advantage of the old idea.
Sixth,
the app. Convince students of the benefits of switching conceptions from
misconceptions to scientific conception. Advise them to apply their scientific
concepts in a variety of situations to solve instructive problems and then test
empirical solutions. They will be able to explicitly compare their
misconceptions with scholarly descriptions.
Seventh,
the review was conducted to review the success of the learning strategy that
has taken place in the effort to reduce the misconceptions that emerged at the
beginning of the lesson. A revision of a learning strategy is made when the
resonant misconceptions are resilient. This is important so that the resistant
misconceptions do not always overcome the cognitive structure, which will
ultimately lead to learning difficulties and low student achievement.
5.
Closing
Based
on the above explanation, to overcome various problems in the learning of the
more complicated, the behavioristic learning that has been used for years,
seems unable to answer all the problems of learning, it is necessary to find
alternative learning that is more able to overcome all the problems of learning
Which exists, one of which is the constructivist approach that has been
described. This approach appreciates the differences, appreciates the
uniqueness of the invidual, appreciates diversity in receiving and interpreting
knowledge.
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